D by boiling in 10 mM citrate buffer, pH 6.0. Slides were blocked

D by boiling in 10 mM citrate buffer, pH 6.0. Slides were blocked in TBS-T containing 5 goat serum. Primary antibodies (Table S5) were incubated in blocking solution overnight, followed by TBS-T washes. Goat antirabbit IgG CAL 120 horseradish-peroxidase conjugated antibody (1:1000) and DAB were used for detection according to the manufacturer’s specification (Vector Laboratories).b-GPA treatmentb-guanidinopropionic acid was synthesized as described [26] from cyanamide and b-alanine, recrystallized and the synthesis confirmed by mass-spectrometry (Figure S2). Seventeen 27-month old F344/BN F1 hybrid rats were purchased from the National Institute on Aging colony. b-GPA was formulated to 1 by weight in 6 fat rodent chow (Harlan-Teklad, Madison, WI) and fed for 7 weeks ad libitum. Rats were housed on a 12 hour light/dark cycle. No significant difference was observed in the survival, activity, or muscle weights of rats treated with b-GPA vs controls.Electron Transport System abnormal muscle fiber abundanceQuadriceps muscles were removed from 28 month old b-GPAtreated and control rats and prepared for histochemistry as above. One hundred 10-micron thick serial cryosections from each animal were cut from the mid-belly of the quadriceps muscle. Serial cryosections were stained for COX, SDH, and dual stained for COX and SDH, activities along the millimeter of tissue. Dual stained sections were first stained for COX activity before being subsequently stained for SDH. Slides containing stained muscle cross sections were imaged using a INCB039110 site Hamamatsu nanozoomer (Bridgewater, New Jersey). Screening for ETS abnormalities was performed using dual stained sections. All abnormal fiber phenotypes were confirmed by examination of the single stained COX and SDH slides. ETS abnormal muscle fiber abundance was counted from all four muscles of the quadriceps and Student’s T-tests were used to determine statistical significance.Mitobiogenesis Drives mtDNA Deletion MutationsFigure 1. Immunohistochemical validation of genes identified in microarray experiments. A representative ETS abnormal skeletal muscle fiber is shown A. Prohibitin 2, B. Mitochondrial DNA Polymerase Gamma, C. P53 Up-regulated Mediator of Apoptosis, D. Cytochrome C Oxidase activity, E. Succinate Dehydrogenase activity. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059006.gassociated with transcripts detected in control cells were associated with response, system and homeostatic processes, and muscle contraction.there was no increase in staining for these proteins in regions distant from the ETS abnormality indicating the specificity of the up-regulation to the dysfunctional segment of the fibers.Immunohistochemical Validation of Gene Expression DataThe microarray data was confirmed immunohistochemically using antibodies against proteins whose transcripts were more abundant (Figure 1). Three proteins were selected for analysis: i) P53 up-regulated mediator of apoptosis, PUMA, ii) polymerase gamma and iii) prohibitin. We observed a focal increase in staining of ETS abnormal fibers with all three antibodies and, importantly,ETS abnormal fibers are signaling to restore cellular energy homeostasisAnalysis of genes expressed in the ETS abnormal fibers suggest a pattern of dysfunctional energy homeostasis and activation of transcriptional pathways involved with metabolism, lipid oxidation and mitochondrial biogenesis. We hypothesized that the transcriptional pattern observed was due to energy deficit and dysfunctional lipid meta.D by boiling in 10 mM citrate buffer, pH 6.0. Slides were blocked in TBS-T containing 5 goat serum. Primary antibodies (Table S5) were incubated in blocking solution overnight, followed by TBS-T washes. Goat antirabbit IgG horseradish-peroxidase conjugated antibody (1:1000) and DAB were used for detection according to the manufacturer’s specification (Vector Laboratories).b-GPA treatmentb-guanidinopropionic acid was synthesized as described [26] from cyanamide and b-alanine, recrystallized and the synthesis confirmed by mass-spectrometry (Figure S2). Seventeen 27-month old F344/BN F1 hybrid rats were purchased from the National Institute on Aging colony. b-GPA was formulated to 1 by weight in 6 fat rodent chow (Harlan-Teklad, Madison, WI) and fed for 7 weeks ad libitum. Rats were housed on a 12 hour light/dark cycle. No significant difference was observed in the survival, activity, or muscle weights of rats treated with b-GPA vs controls.Electron Transport System abnormal muscle fiber abundanceQuadriceps muscles were removed from 28 month old b-GPAtreated and control rats and prepared for histochemistry as above. One hundred 10-micron thick serial cryosections from each animal were cut from the mid-belly of the quadriceps muscle. Serial cryosections were stained for COX, SDH, and dual stained for COX and SDH, activities along the millimeter of tissue. Dual stained sections were first stained for COX activity before being subsequently stained for SDH. Slides containing stained muscle cross sections were imaged using a Hamamatsu nanozoomer (Bridgewater, New Jersey). Screening for ETS abnormalities was performed using dual stained sections. All abnormal fiber phenotypes were confirmed by examination of the single stained COX and SDH slides. ETS abnormal muscle fiber abundance was counted from all four muscles of the quadriceps and Student’s T-tests were used to determine statistical significance.Mitobiogenesis Drives mtDNA Deletion MutationsFigure 1. Immunohistochemical validation of genes identified in microarray experiments. A representative ETS abnormal skeletal muscle fiber is shown A. Prohibitin 2, B. Mitochondrial DNA Polymerase Gamma, C. P53 Up-regulated Mediator of Apoptosis, D. Cytochrome C Oxidase activity, E. Succinate Dehydrogenase activity. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059006.gassociated with transcripts detected in control cells were associated with response, system and homeostatic processes, and muscle contraction.there was no increase in staining for these proteins in regions distant from the ETS abnormality indicating the specificity of the up-regulation to the dysfunctional segment of the fibers.Immunohistochemical Validation of Gene Expression DataThe microarray data was confirmed immunohistochemically using antibodies against proteins whose transcripts were more abundant (Figure 1). Three proteins were selected for analysis: i) P53 up-regulated mediator of apoptosis, PUMA, ii) polymerase gamma and iii) prohibitin. We observed a focal increase in staining of ETS abnormal fibers with all three antibodies and, importantly,ETS abnormal fibers are signaling to restore cellular energy homeostasisAnalysis of genes expressed in the ETS abnormal fibers suggest a pattern of dysfunctional energy homeostasis and activation of transcriptional pathways involved with metabolism, lipid oxidation and mitochondrial biogenesis. We hypothesized that the transcriptional pattern observed was due to energy deficit and dysfunctional lipid meta.