Health and development (Ong and Collier, 2008). We sketch here a tentative

Health and development (Ong and Collier, 2008). We sketch here a tentative genealogy of some of these rationalities, practices and networks that make it possible to conceive of chronic diseases as a problem of development today. An important, early moment in such a genealogy has to be the elaboration of the notion of `health development’ in the postWorld War II period (Walt and Rifkin, 1990). This was a period marked by the dismantling of the old colonial empires and the birth of the `Third World’ articulated through the theories and practices of development (Escobar, 1995). At first, the new development experts did not attach much importance to health. Indeed, for them, development was about economic growth and physical capital like roads, railways and industries. It is only from the 1960s onwards that they began to recognise that development was also about poverty alleviation and human capital. For the most part, this meant investing in education and healthcare systems so as to improve the quality and quantity of the labour force and bolster national productivity (Finnemore, 1997). Another, critical step in the framing of chronic disease as a development issue was the articulation of the concept of chronic disease itself. As Armstrong (2014) has argued, this concept only came to prominence in the postwar period (cf. also Weisz, 2014a). The elaboration of this concept made it possible to bring together and view disorders such as cancer and heart ailments ?which until then had been thought to be the product of the natural GSK1363089 site process of ageing and, as such, outside the realm of medicine ?as part of a new diagnostic category: diseases with an aetiology of multiple, lifestyle-related risk factors that had a lasting impact on someone’s capacity to function normally. As Armstrong (1995) also shows, this new diagnostic category came together with a new model of medicine ?surveillance medicine ?that progressively displaced pathological medicine from the 1950s onwards. Pathological medicine was about investigating the physiological lesion in the body of the patient in the hospital through clinical examinations, laboratory analyses and post-mortems (Foucault, 1976). In contrast, surveillance medicine was concerned with identifying possible risk factors of Dalfopristin supplement future illness through regular medico-social surveys and screening programmes of everyone in the community, both the ill and the seemingly healthy. Unlike pathological medicine, it also assumed a responsible patient who actively engaged in his or her surveillance, education and care, which comprised healthy lifestyles promotion campaigns, screening tests and life-long drug regimens (Petersen and Lupton, 2000). For most public health experts, chronic diseases and the developing world were long thought to be mutually exclusive, with chronic diseases deemed to be the preserve of the rich, industrialised countries of the North while the major concern for the South was infectious diseases and malnutrition (Bryant, 1969; Brockington, 1985). In the minds of these experts, these differences in disease patterns were closely related with the demographic and socio-economic changes associated with modernisation. Perhaps the most influential account of this relationship between disease and modernity was Abdel Omran’s notion of epidemiological transition. In Omran’s terms, so-called `developed countries’ had undergone an epidemiological transition and entered the `Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases’, whi.Health and development (Ong and Collier, 2008). We sketch here a tentative genealogy of some of these rationalities, practices and networks that make it possible to conceive of chronic diseases as a problem of development today. An important, early moment in such a genealogy has to be the elaboration of the notion of `health development’ in the postWorld War II period (Walt and Rifkin, 1990). This was a period marked by the dismantling of the old colonial empires and the birth of the `Third World’ articulated through the theories and practices of development (Escobar, 1995). At first, the new development experts did not attach much importance to health. Indeed, for them, development was about economic growth and physical capital like roads, railways and industries. It is only from the 1960s onwards that they began to recognise that development was also about poverty alleviation and human capital. For the most part, this meant investing in education and healthcare systems so as to improve the quality and quantity of the labour force and bolster national productivity (Finnemore, 1997). Another, critical step in the framing of chronic disease as a development issue was the articulation of the concept of chronic disease itself. As Armstrong (2014) has argued, this concept only came to prominence in the postwar period (cf. also Weisz, 2014a). The elaboration of this concept made it possible to bring together and view disorders such as cancer and heart ailments ?which until then had been thought to be the product of the natural process of ageing and, as such, outside the realm of medicine ?as part of a new diagnostic category: diseases with an aetiology of multiple, lifestyle-related risk factors that had a lasting impact on someone’s capacity to function normally. As Armstrong (1995) also shows, this new diagnostic category came together with a new model of medicine ?surveillance medicine ?that progressively displaced pathological medicine from the 1950s onwards. Pathological medicine was about investigating the physiological lesion in the body of the patient in the hospital through clinical examinations, laboratory analyses and post-mortems (Foucault, 1976). In contrast, surveillance medicine was concerned with identifying possible risk factors of future illness through regular medico-social surveys and screening programmes of everyone in the community, both the ill and the seemingly healthy. Unlike pathological medicine, it also assumed a responsible patient who actively engaged in his or her surveillance, education and care, which comprised healthy lifestyles promotion campaigns, screening tests and life-long drug regimens (Petersen and Lupton, 2000). For most public health experts, chronic diseases and the developing world were long thought to be mutually exclusive, with chronic diseases deemed to be the preserve of the rich, industrialised countries of the North while the major concern for the South was infectious diseases and malnutrition (Bryant, 1969; Brockington, 1985). In the minds of these experts, these differences in disease patterns were closely related with the demographic and socio-economic changes associated with modernisation. Perhaps the most influential account of this relationship between disease and modernity was Abdel Omran’s notion of epidemiological transition. In Omran’s terms, so-called `developed countries’ had undergone an epidemiological transition and entered the `Age of Degenerative and Man-Made Diseases’, whi.